In end-of-life decision making for a patient who lacks capacity, substitute judgment refers to:

• A. Making decisions based on the clinician’s own beliefs.
• B. Deferring all decisions until capacity returns.
• C. Choosing the most protective option for the patient’s safety regardless of stated values.
• D. Making decisions based on the patient’s previously stated values and preferences, as if the patient were making the decision.

Answer: (D)